Early Maladaptive Ego Development - Origins of Mental Illness

Early Maladaptive Schemas

The most basic concept in Schema Therapy is an Early Maladaptive Schema.  We define schemas as:  “broad, pervasive themes regarding oneself and one's relationship with others, developed during childhood and elaborated throughout one's lifetime, and dysfunctional to a significant degree."  

We have identified 18 schemas thus far.  You can see this listing by clicking on the link to the right.

Because they begin early in life, schemas become familiar and thus comfortable. We distort our view of the events in our lives in order to maintain the validity of our schemas. Schemas may remain dormant until they are activated by situations relevant to that particular schema.  

Schema Domains

We have grouped these 18 schemas into 5 broad developmental categories of schemas that we call schema domains.  Each of the five domains represents an important component of a child's core needs. Schemas interfere with the child's attempts to get the core needs met within each domain.

 DISCONNECTION & REJECTION

(Expectation that one's needs for security, safety, stability, nurturance, empathy, sharing of feelings, acceptance, and respect will not be met in a predictable manner. Typical family origin is detached, cold, rejecting, withholding, lonely, explosive, unpredictable, or abusive.)

1.  ABANDONMENT /  INSTABILITY   (AB)

     The perceived instability or unreliability of those available for support and connection.

     Involves the sense that significant others will not be able to continue providing emotional support, connection, strength, or practical protection because they are emotionally unstable and unpredictable (e.g., angry outbursts), unreliable, or erratically present; because they will die imminently; or because they will abandon the patient in favor of someone better.

2.  MISTRUST / ABUSE   (MA)

     The expectation that others will hurt, abuse, humiliate, cheat, lie, manipulate, or take advantage.  Usually involves the perception that the harm is intentional or the result of unjustified and extreme negligence. May include the sense that one always ends up being cheated relative to others or "getting the short end of the stick."

3.  EMOTIONAL DEPRIVATION (ED)

   Expectation that one's desire for a normal degree of emotional support will not be adequately met by others.  The three major forms of deprivation are:

     A. Deprivation of Nurturance:  Absence of attention, affection, warmth, or companionship.

     B. Deprivation of Empathy:  Absence of understanding, listening, self-disclosure, or mutual sharing of feelings from   others.

     C. Deprivation of Protection:  Absence of strength, direction, or guidance from others.

4.  DEFECTIVENESS / SHAME  (DS)

     The feeling that one is defective, bad, unwanted, inferior, or invalid in important respects; or that one would be unlovable to significant others if exposed. May involve hypersensitivity to criticism, rejection, and blame; self-consciousness, comparisons, and insecurity around others; or a sense of shame regarding one's perceived flaws. These flaws may be private (e.g., selfishness, angry impulses, unacceptable sexual desires) or public (e.g., undesirable physical appearance, social awkwardness).

5.  SOCIAL ISOLATION / ALIENATION   (SI)

     The feeling that one is isolated from the rest of the world, different from other people, and/or not part of any group or community.

IMPAIRED AUTONOMY & PERFORMANCE

(Expectations about oneself and the environment that interfere with one's perceived ability to separate, survive, function independently, or perform successfully. Typical family origin is enmeshed, undermining of child's confidence, overprotective, or failing to reinforce child for performing competently outside the family.)

6.  DEPENDENCE / INCOMPETENCE (DI)

     Belief that one is unable to handle one's everyday responsibilities in a competent manner, without considerable help from others (e.g., take care of oneself, solve daily problems, exercise good judgment, tackle new tasks, make good decisions). Often presents as helplessness.

7.  VULNERABILITY TO HARM OR ILLNESS  (VH)

     Exaggerated fear that imminent catastrophe will strike at any time and that one will be unable to prevent it. Fears focus on one or more of the following: (A) Medical Catastrophes:  e.g., heart attacks, AIDS;  (B) Emotional Catastrophes:  e.g., going crazy;  (C): External Catastrophes: e.g., elevators collapsing, victimized by criminals, airplane crashes, earthquakes.

8.  ENMESHMENT  /  UNDEVELOPED SELF   (EM)

     Excessive emotional involvement and closeness with one or more significant others (often parents), at the expense of full individuation or normal social development.  Often involves the belief that at least one of the enmeshed individuals cannot survive or be happy without the constant support of the other.   May also include feelings of being smothered by, or fused with, others  OR  insufficient individual identity. Often experienced as a feeling of emptiness and floundering, having no direction, or in extreme cases questioning one's existence.  

9.  FAILURE  (FA)

     The belief that one has failed,  will inevitably fail, or is fundamentally inadequate relative to one's peers, in areas of achievement (school, career, sports, etc.). Often involves beliefs that one is stupid, inept, untalented, ignorant, lower in status, less successful than others, etc.

IMPAIRED LIMITS

(Deficiency in internal limits,  responsibility to others, or long-term goal-orientation. Leads to difficulty respecting the rights of others, cooperating with others, making commitments,  or setting and meeting realistic personal goals. Typical family origin is characterized by permissiveness, overindulgence, lack of direction, or a sense of superiority -- rather than appropriate confrontation, discipline,  and  limits in relation to taking responsibility, cooperating in a reciprocal manner, and setting goals. In some cases, child may not have been pushed to tolerate normal levels of discomfort, or may not have been given adequate supervision, direction, or guidance.)

10.  ENTITLEMENT / GRANDIOSITY  (ET)

     The belief that one is superior to other people; entitled to special rights and privileges; or not bound by the rules of reciprocity that guide normal social interaction. Often involves insistence that one should be able to do or have whatever one wants, regardless of what is realistic, what others consider reasonable,  or the cost to others;  OR an exaggerated focus on superiority (e.g., being among  the most successful,  famous,  wealthy)  -- in order to achieve power or control (not primarily for attention or approval).  Sometimes includes excessive competitiveness toward, or domination of, others:  asserting one's power, forcing one's point of view, or controlling the behavior of others in line with one's own desires---without empathy or concern for others' needs or feelings.

11. INSUFFICIENT SELF-CONTROL / SELF-DISCIPLINE (IS)

     Pervasive difficulty or refusal to exercise sufficient self-control and frustration tolerance to achieve one's personal goals, or to restrain the excessive expression of one's emotions and impulses.  In its milder form,  patient presents with an exaggerated emphasis on discomfort-avoidance:  avoiding pain, conflict, confrontation, responsibility, or overexertion---at the expense of personal fulfillment, commitment,  or integrity.

OTHER-DIRECTEDNESS

(An excessive focus on the desires, feelings, and responses of others, at the expense of one's own needs -- in order to gain love and approval, maintain one's sense of connection, or avoid retaliation.  Usually involves suppression and lack of awareness regarding one's own anger and natural inclinations. Typical family origin is based on conditional acceptance: children must suppress important aspects of themselves in order to gain love, attention, and approval.  In many such families,  the parents' emotional needs and desires -- or social acceptance and status -- are valued more than the unique needs and feelings of each child.)

12.  SUBJUGATION  (SB)

     Excessive surrendering of control to others because one feels coerced - - usually to avoid anger, retaliation, or abandonment. The two major forms of subjugation are:

         A. Subjugation of Needs:  Suppression of one's preferences, decisions, and desires.

         B. Subjugation of Emotions: Suppression of emotional expression, especially anger.

     Usually involves the perception that one's own desires, opinions, and feelings are not valid or important to others. Frequently presents as excessive compliance, combined with hypersensitivity to feeling trapped. Generally leads to a build up of anger, manifested in maladaptive symptoms (e.g., passive-aggressive behavior, uncontrolled outbursts of temper, psychosomatic symptoms, withdrawal of affection, "acting out", substance abuse).

13. SELF-SACRIFICE (SS)

     Excessive focus on voluntarily meeting the needs of others in daily situations, at the expense of one's own gratification.  The most common reasons are:  to prevent causing pain to others; to avoid guilt from feeling selfish;  or to maintain the connection with others perceived as needy .  Often results from an acute sensitivity to the pain of others. Sometimes leads to a sense that one's own needs are not being adequately met and to resentment of those who are taken care of. (Overlaps with concept of codependency.)

14.  APPROVAL-SEEKING  /  RECOGNITION-SEEKING  (AS)

     Excessive emphasis on gaining approval, recognition, or attention from other people, or fitting in, at the expense of developing a secure and true sense of self.  One's sense of esteem is dependent primarily on the reactions of others rather than on one's own natural inclinations.  Sometimes includes an overemphasis on status, appearance, social acceptance, money, or achievement --  as means of gaining approval, admiration, or attention (not primarily for power or control). Frequently results in major life decisions that are inauthentic or unsatisfying;  or in hypersensitivity to rejection.

OVERVIGILANCE  & INHIBITION

(Excessive emphasis on suppressing one's spontaneous feelings, impulses, and choices OR on meeting rigid, internalized rules and expectations about performance and ethical behavior -- often at the expense of happiness, self-expression, relaxation, close relationships, or health.  Typical family origin is grim, demanding, and sometimes punitive: performance, duty, perfectionism, following rules, hiding emotions, and avoiding mistakes predominate over pleasure, joy, and relaxation.  There is usually an undercurrent of pessimism and worry---that things could fall apart if one fails to be vigilant and careful at all times.)

15. NEGATIVITY  /  PESSIMISM  (NP)

     A pervasive, lifelong focus on the negative aspects of life (pain, death, loss, disappointment, conflict, guilt, resentment, unsolved problems, potential mistakes, betrayal, things that could go wrong, etc.) while minimizing or neglecting the positive or optimistic aspects. Usually includes an exaggerated expectation-- in a wide range of work, financial, or interpersonal situations -- that things will eventually go seriously wrong, or that aspects of one's life that seem to be going well will ultimately fall apart. Usually involves an inordinate fear of making mistakes that might lead to: financial collapse, loss, humiliation, or being trapped in a bad situation. Because potential negative outcomes are exaggerated, these patients are frequently characterized by chronic worry, vigilance, complaining, or indecision.

16.  EMOTIONAL INHIBITION (EI)

     The excessive inhibition of spontaneous action, feeling, or communication -- usually to avoid disapproval by others, feelings of shame, or losing control of one's impulses. The most common areas of inhibition involve:  (a) inhibition of anger & aggression;  (b) inhibition of positive impulses (e.g., joy, affection, sexual excitement, play);  (c) difficulty expressing vulnerability or communicating freely about one's feelings, needs, etc.;  or (d) excessive emphasis on rationality while disregarding emotions.

17.  UNRELENTING STANDARDS /  HYPERCRITICALNESS  (US)

    The underlying belief that one must strive to meet very high internalized standards of behavior and performance, usually to avoid criticism. Typically results in feelings of pressure or difficulty slowing down; and in hypercriticalness toward oneself and others.  Must involve significant impairment in:  pleasure, relaxation, health, self-esteem, sense of accomplishment, or satisfying relationships.

     Unrelenting standards typically present as:  (a) perfectionism, inordinate attention to detail, or an underestimate of how good one's own performance is relative to the norm;  (b) rigid rules and “shoulds” in many areas of life, including unrealistically high moral, ethical, cultural, or religious precepts; or (c) preoccupation with time and efficiency, so that more can be accomplished.

18.  PUNITIVENESS  (PU)

     The belief that people should be harshly punished for making mistakes.  Involves the tendency to be angry, intolerant, punitive, and impatient with those people (including oneself) who do not meet one's expectations or standards.  Usually includes difficulty forgiving mistakes in oneself or others, because of a reluctance to consider extenuating circumstances, allow for human imperfection, or empathize with feelings.

Coping Styles

Different people cope with their schemas in different ways.  This explains why children raised in the same environment can appear to be so different. For example, two children with abusive parents may respond very differently.  One becomes a passive, frightened victim, and remains that way throughout life. The other child becomes openly rebellious and defiant, and may even leave home early to survive as a teenager on the streets.  

Partly this is because we have different temperaments at birth. Temperamentally, we may tend to be more frightened, active, outgoing, or shy. Our temperaments push us in certain directions.  

Partly this is because we may unconsciously choose different parents to "copy" or model ourselves after.  For example, because an "abuser" often marries a "victim," the child in this family could model either the abusive parent, the victimized parent, or have elements of both coping styles.

We view coping styles as normal attempts on the part of the child to survive in a difficult childhood environment.  Unfortunately, we keep repeating our coping styles throughout adulthood, even when we no longer need them to survive.  

Most of the time, as adults, these coping styles lead us to act in ways that end up blocking our development: for example, we may abuse alcohol, become excessively rigid and stubborn, isolate ourselves from other people, stop feeling emotions, or mistreat other people.

According to our model, there are three general ways that we adapt to our schemas:  

 Overcompensation, which means doing the opposite of what our schemas makes us feel

 Surrender, which means giving in to our schemas and repeating them over and over

Avoidance, which means finding ways to escape or block out our schemas

Overcompensation

1.  Aggression, Hostility:  Counterattacks through defying, abusing, blaming, attacking, or criticizing others

2.  Dominance, Excessive Self-assertion:  Controls others through direct means to accomplish goals

3.  Recognition-seeking, Status-seeking:  Overcompensates through impressing, high achievement, status, attention-seeking, etc.

4.  Manipulation, Exploitation:  Meets own needs through covert manipulation, seduction, dishonesty, or conning

5.  Passive-aggressiveness, Rebellion:  Appears overtly compliant while punishing others or rebelling covertly through procrastination, pouting, “backstabbing,” lateness, complaining, rebellion, non-performance, etc.

6.  Excessive Orderliness, Obsessionality:  Maintains strict order, tight self-control, or high level of predictability through order & planning, excessive adherence to routine or ritual, or undue caution.  Devotes inordinate time to finding the best way to accomplish tasks or avoid negative outcomes.

Surrender

7.  Compliance, Dependence:  Relies on others, gives in, seeks affiliation, passive, dependent, submissive, clinging, avoids conflict, people-pleasing.

Avoidance

8.  Social withdrawal, Excessive autonomy: Copes through social isolation, disconnection, and withdrawal.  May demonstrate an exaggerated focus on independence and self-reliance, rather than involvement with others. Sometimes retreats through private activities such as excessive TV watching, reading, recreational computing, or solitary work.

9.  Compulsive Stimulation-seeking:  Seeks excitement or distraction through compulsive shopping, sex, gambling, risk-taking, physical activity, novelty, etc.

10.  Addictive Self-Soothing:  Avoids through addictions involving the body, such as alcohol, drugs, overeating, excessive masturbation, etc.

11.  Psychological Withdrawal:  Copes through dissociation, numbness, denial, fantasy, or other internal forms of psychological escape

Selected Annotated Bibliography

Young, J.E., Klosko, J.S., & Weishaar, M. (April, 2003).  Schema Therapy: A Practitioner's Guide. Guilford Publications: New York.  

This will be the “bible” for Young's schema therapy when it is published in April, 2003. This full-size text explains all aspects of schema theory and treatment, with detailed examples and patient transcripts.  The guide explains how to implement all the assessment and change procedures that comprise ST, including the most recent developments in schema mode work. The book also contains extended protocols for treating borderline and narcissistic personality disorders.

Young, J.E. (1990,1999).  Cognitive therapy for personality disorders: A schema-focused approach (revised edition).   Professional Resource Press, PO Box 15560, Sarasota, Florida, 34277.  (To order, call 800-443-3364)

This is the original book describing schema therapy.  Includes the basic rationale, theory, intervention strategies, and an extended case study based on schema therapy. The book is very succinct and non-technical, and provides the underlying basis for the entire approach.

Young, J.E. & Klosko, J.S. (1993, 1994). Reinventing your life.  New York: Plume Books. Click on the link to your right to learn more about the book.

This popular self-help book based on Young's schema approach is essential reading for both the practitioner and client.  The book includes detailed descriptions of the eleven most common lifetraps (schemas), including: specific treatment techniques,  the most common childhood origins, partner choices, self-defeating behavior patterns, self-help exercises, and extensive case vignettes.  Written in easy-to-understand language, this book serves as an ideal client's guide to schema therapy.

Young, J.E. (1998,2000,2002). Audiotapes: Challenging cases: Innovations in brief cognitive-behavioral therapy (1998), Challenging cases: Schema-focused innovations in brief cognitive therapy: Advanced Symposium (2000), Schema Therapy for Borderline & Narcissistic Personality Disorders (2002). Pittsfield, MA: New England Educational Institute. (To order: www.neei.org or call 413-499-1489.)

These sets of audiotapes contain the complete series of lectures Dr. Young delivers at the New England Educational Institute symposia in Cape Cod. The schema model and treatment approach is presented in detail, including work with borderline patients and other difficult personality disorders. Each series is approximately 15 hours. ($95 per set plus shipping). We recommend the three sets listed above.